Przegląd Geograficzny (2022) tom 94, zeszyt 3

Abstract

The main objective of the work detailed here was to identify directions of population change characterising Poland’s largest cities in the years 1980‑2020. The temporal scope of the analysis involves the last decade of the country’s communist era (1980‑1989) and the subsequent period of transition. The cities involved were Warsaw, Kraków, Łódź, Wrocław, Poznań and Gdańsk.

This paper is analytical and descriptive, with the index method and Webb’s typology deployed. Population change was described in terms of the relative population index and growth rate, while reference was also made to rate of natural increase and migration balance. Webb’s dynamic diagram was used to depict directions of population change, in a modification permitting that change over time to be indicated. Population structure was analysed by identifying “surpluses” in the shares of overall population accounted for by people in particular age groups. This method, approached separately for males and females, makes comparisons – and seeks divergences – with the average shares for population in different age groups noted for Poland as a whole.

It was at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries that situations as regards population in different cities began to diversify markedly, under the influence of changing socio-economic conditions. In this, several population-related sub-periods may be identified. While most cities entered a phase of stagnation following a period of population growth, some also experienced depopulation. While certain cities have experienced marked “improvement” in the situation as regards population more recently, a specific recent issue has been the demographic collapse of 2020, related to the COVID-19 pandemic.

As noted already, in the time through to the mid-1980s, Poland’s largest cities were all rather similar in terms of their population trends. Post-1985, however, a period of demographic reconstruction set in, and the trends for the cities began to diversify. The key differences identified relate to the durations of periods of population stagnation, as well as the trends encountered once that stagnation ended. Certain similarities as regards trends for population are noted for such pairs of cities as Warsaw and Kraków, Wrocław and Gdańsk, and Poznań and Łódź.

Figures for both natural increase and migration balance show marked fluctuation in the period under analysis. Natural increase was declining in all of the cities in the 1980s, to a point at which negative values were reached (denoting natural decrease in each city analysed). However, the 2016‑2019 period brought a significant renewed increase in values for natural increase, as reflecting increased birth rate. However, what diversified post-1982 were the trends for migration balance characterising the different cities. Only in Warsaw did the migration balance remain positive through the whole period analysed, though it is also worth noting how all the cities experienced clear increases in values for the migration balance index between 2013 and 2019.

The sub-periods distinguished differ in terms of the factors dominant within population change. In the urbanisation phase, that factor in all of the cities was positive natural increase. The period of reconstruction of the situation as regards population was then characterised by variation in the importance of different factors. Indeed, the current trends for demographic change in each city are linked to one particular factor being dominant. In the cases of cities featuring steady population growth, that factor is a positive migration balance. The situation is more complex in the case of cities currently experiencing depopulation (in Łódź the factor involved is natural decrease, while in Poznań it is a negative migration balance).

The so-called ‘big five’ cities have population “surpluses” vis-à-vis the rest of the country in the same (0‑4, 30‑44 and 65+) age groups. In the case of the population of post-working age, ongoing ageing of the population is indicated, while in the case of the younger age groups the data reflect influxes of migrants into the cities. Against this background, Łódź stands out, with “surpluses” of population shares in the 35‑49 and 60+ age groups among women and the 40‑44 and 65+ age groups for men. These point to Łódź being the Polish city manifesting processes of population ageing to the greatest degree.

Keywords: duże miasta, zmiany ludnościowe, urbanizacja, depopulacja, Polska

Robert Szmytkie [robert.szmytkie@uwr.edu.pl], Uniwersytet Wrocławski, Instytut Geografii i Rozwoju Regionalnego

Citation

APA: Szmytkie, R. (2022). Kierunki zmian ludnościowych w największych miastach Polski w latach 1980‑2020. Przegląd Geograficzny, 94(3), 307-325. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2022.3.2
MLA: Szmytkie, Robert. "Kierunki zmian ludnościowych w największych miastach Polski w latach 1980‑2020". Przegląd Geograficzny, vol. 94, no. 3, 2022, pp. 307-325. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2022.3.2
Chicago: Szmytkie, Robert. "Kierunki zmian ludnościowych w największych miastach Polski w latach 1980‑2020". Przegląd Geograficzny 94, no. 3 (2022): 307-325. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2022.3.2
Harvard: Szmytkie, R. 2022. "Kierunki zmian ludnościowych w największych miastach Polski w latach 1980‑2020". Przegląd Geograficzny, vol. 94, no. 3, pp. 307-325. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2022.3.2

Abstract

The aim of the study detailed here has been to identify the spatial pattern describing Poland’s providers of Industry 4.0 technologies (i.e. the so-called digital entrepreneurs), and to determine the territorial potential for future clusters of these activities to develop across the country. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this article represents the literature’s very first systematic attempt at a firm-level examination of the current and future “geography” of digital (Industry 4.0) enterprises. The identification of technology providers meeting the criterion reflected type of prevailing activity, by reference to international classifications of economic activity. At the first stage, systematic queries involving such various sources as company catalogues, websites of technology parks, clusters and industry associations, databases of the Patent Office of the Republic of Poland and European Patent Office (EPO) and data relating to the use of European Funds in Poland were used to identify 823 digital enterprises. In turn, reference to NACE codes of prevailing activity allowed for the identification of 30 industries represented by more than 5% of the companies identified (Annex 1). In a further step, location quotients (vis-à-vis the working-age population) were calculated for 426,000 active entities registered in the Polish National Court Register (KRS). This allowed for the identification of spatial concentrations on an industry-by-industry basis (Fig. 1‑2). The synthetic indicator constructed (as the sum of weighted location quotients) offers an approximation of the potential particular places in Poland display, when it comes to the development of clusters of Industry 4.0 technology providers.

The recognised clusters of digital entrepreneurs in Industry 4.0 show a strong concentration in a small number of cities and counties, and above all in the core cities of the largest Polish metropolises. Currently, the seven largest Polish metropolises concentrate within their limits some 76% of digital entrepreneurs, with the capital city (Warsaw) alone accounting for 24%. Forecasted potential for the future development of digital entrepreneurs, beyond the capital and the regional metropolises, are significant for the multifunctional cities located in those regions where manufacturing companies are dense, in particular classified as medium-tech and high-tech industries. Areas of concentration of digital entrepreneurs of the P4.0 kind show the most marked correlation with clusters of high-technology services (χ = 0.71), while co-location with concentrations of high-technology industries is only at a slightly lower level (χ = 0.69). The correlation between the concentration of digital enterprises and population is much weaker (χ = 0.55), indicating that the geography of digital enterprises is not merely a straightforward reflection of demographic potential. The basis for the difference between the geography of digital enterprises in Industry 4.0 and the geography of high-technology sectors in Poland lies in the greater role of multifunctional urban centres located in industrial regions in the south of the country in particular. An extensive zone displaying increased potential for development of I4.0 technology providers is seen to include poviats in the south-west of the country (Fig. 3.). This is in line with ongoing reindustrialisation of the area starting in the late 1990s, and continuing in the early 2000s. This points to the existence of positive inter-path relationships (see Frangenheim et al., 2020; Micek et al., 2022). The heterogeneity of fourth-generation industry technologies means that, on the basis of their own well-recognised potential, individual cities and regions can explore different new paths related to Industry 4.0 technologies. Of the five main industry types of digital entrepreneur distinguished (producers, integrators, distributors, software and engineering/R&D), the strongest territorial concentration is shown by the software and engineering/R&D companies. Much more limited concentration, and thus a larger territorial window of opportunity for the development of Industry 4.0 competencies, is characteristic of digital enterprises that can grow from machinery manufacturers and specialised repair and maintenance activities. In contrast to the former group are the metropolitan ‘born global’ start-ups, for which an important location factor is proximity to manufacturing firms, in a manner that ensures a more-deconcentrated pattern of innovation activities across Polish space.

Keywords: przemysł 4.0, geografia innowacji, sektory zaawansowanej technologii, koncentracja przestrzenna, Polska

Krzysztof Gwosdz [krzysztof.gwosdz@uj.edu.pl], Uniwersytet Jagielloński, Instytut Geografii i Gospodarki Przestrzennej
Agnieszka Sobala-Gwosdz [asobala-gwosdz@irmir.pl], Instytut Rozwoju Miast i Regionów
Katarzyna Hetmańczyk [katarzyna.hetmanczyk@student.uj.edu.pl], Uniwersytet Jagielloński, Instytut Geografii i Gospodarki Przestrzennej

Citation

APA: Gwosdz, K., Sobala-Gwosdz, A., & Hetmańczyk, K. (2022). Cyfrowi przedsiębiorcy przemysłu 4.0 w przestrzeni Polski. Przegląd Geograficzny, 94(3), 327-349. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2022.3.3
MLA: Gwosdz, Krzysztof, et al. "Cyfrowi przedsiębiorcy przemysłu 4.0 w przestrzeni Polski". Przegląd Geograficzny, vol. 94, no. 3, 2022, pp. 327-349. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2022.3.3
Chicago: Gwosdz, Krzysztof, Sobala-Gwosdz, Agnieszka, and Hetmańczyk, Katarzyna. "Cyfrowi przedsiębiorcy przemysłu 4.0 w przestrzeni Polski". Przegląd Geograficzny 94, no. 3 (2022): 327-349. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2022.3.3
Harvard: Gwosdz, K., Sobala-Gwosdz, A., & Hetmańczyk, K. 2022. "Cyfrowi przedsiębiorcy przemysłu 4.0 w przestrzeni Polski". Przegląd Geograficzny, vol. 94, no. 3, pp. 327-349. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2022.3.3

Abstract

The main objective of the work detailed in this paper has been to analyse the spatial distribution of technology companies in a city, as well as to identify factors influencing their locations. Warsaw, which can be regarded as a metropolis with a relatively well-developed startup ecosystem, was used to illustrate the changes occurring across cityspace as a result of the fourth technological revolution. The research used a database elaborated specially for the purposes of the work on tech companies dealing with technologies such as: a) artificial intelligence, b) machine learning, c) big data analytics and d) cloud computing. The database in question integrates a number of sources of information such as the Crunch database of tech companies, tech jobs portals, tech industry conferences and Poland’s official REGON database of business entities. After several stages of verification, the research included 319 business entities located in Warsaw, and considered to be the tech companies dealing with the highlighted technologies.

The research showed that the development of the digital economy expressed in dynamic growth in the number of new enterprises in industries related to new technologies should be conducive to the transformation of the city centre. Warsaw-based entities involved in the production and implementation of new technological solutions – and especially those established in the last decade – are more likely to choose the central part of Warsaw in which to locate, as opposed to peripheral districts of the Polish capital. This is particularly evident in the case of such intangible business service sectors as software production or professional services. In addition, software technology companies are more likely than IT companies in general to choose central locations. In general, business districts prove most popular among technology enterprises, including those located outside the central area (i.e. Mokotowski and Jerozolimski). Alongside the western part of Warsaw’s Central Business District the latter prove to be most specialised in terms of the locating of technology enterprises. In general, the change in the preferences of technology businesses as compared with the earlier period can be taken to constitute a ‘revalorisation’, i.e. an increase in the attractiveness of the city centre in line with a change in location factors.

Our analysis of the location factors for technological enterprises in Warsaw was carried out using an indirect method that entailed examination of their locations across the cityspace, and characteristics of those locations; as well as selected business relations. On that basis, it proved possible to note, as key factors, characteristics of the buildings constituting seats of the said enterprises. In particular, where technology companies were concerned, the availability of co-working spaces was important, especially those located in the most modern office buildings. The example of Warsaw confirms trends observed around the world rendering similar the locations of the headquarters of large technology corporations and technology start-ups. This is facilitated by a process by which the supply of office space is adjusted to the location needs of the companies in question. This has become particularly evident in the last decade, with new technological entities clearly more willing to locate in city centres. This coincided with the development of co-working spaces, which appeared in Warsaw in 2008, three years after the implementation of this form of offering space for business operations in San Francisco. At the same time, it should be noted that some technology companies used other space for their activities, in particular residential buildings of various types, or older office buildings. This may indicate that space with lower rental costs was being sought by these companies (as also applies to leading technology firms, as evidenced by DocPlanner’s locating in Kolejowa Street in the post-industrial and still neglected part of Warsaw’s Wola District). At the same time, such locations were in a position to provide access to appropriate services, inter alia the close proximity of cafés. The importance of the attractiveness of the surroundings of the place of business as a location factor may also be evidenced by relatively proximate locations of green areas. However, on the basis of the conducted research it is not possible to state unequivocally state that these factors were taken into account by technology enterprises as they made their location decisions. Nevertheless, the preferences gain partial confirmation via the analysis of the location factors of technology enterprises in relation to office space actually available. In particular, the attractiveness of those parts of the Central Business District that are characterised by a diverse urban fabric (i.e. the southern and eastern parts in the case of Warsaw) is evident. Moreover, these results are in line with the preferences technology companies show as they seek to take advantage of urbanization effects associated with a specific urban environment characteristic of central districts (as studies in other European metropolises, such as Barcelona or Ostrava, make clear).

Preferences in terms of transport accessibility may also help account for changing location patterns displayed by technology firms. In particular, close proximity to Warsaw’s Metro stations may be an attracting factor. However, only about 40% of the enterprises analysed were actually within 600 metres of such a station – the recommended distance for there to be any real impact on employees’ transport behaviour. This means that a significant proportion of the companies surveyed may also be competing for employees in terms of good accessibility via individual transport (especially car), or other means of public transport. Equally, where external accessibility was concerned, there was no confirmation of the importance of the airport as a factor underpinning locations of Warsaw’s technology companies. This could reflect a lack of difference to the structure of sales markets, including the importance of the foreign market, between technology companies and Warsaw-based companies in general. Likewise, the proximity of customers failed to show as significant to the locations of companies. In regard to both the location of the airport and customers, agglomeration effects were deemed to be of a city-wide nature, more than being related to specific micro-locations.

Keywords: przedsiębiorstwa technologiczne, czynniki lokalizacji, ekosystem startupowy, metropolia, Warszawa

Maciej Smętkowski [msmetkowski@uw.edu.pl], Uniwersytet Warszawski, Centrum Europejskich Studiów Regionalnych i Lokalnych

Citation

APA: Smętkowski, M. (2022). „Rewaloryzacja” centrum miasta: tendencje lokalizacyjne przedsiębiorstw technologicznych w skali mikro na przykładzie Warszawy. Przegląd Geograficzny, 94(3), 351-371. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2022.3.4
MLA: Smętkowski, Maciej. "„Rewaloryzacja” centrum miasta: tendencje lokalizacyjne przedsiębiorstw technologicznych w skali mikro na przykładzie Warszawy". Przegląd Geograficzny, vol. 94, no. 3, 2022, pp. 351-371. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2022.3.4
Chicago: Smętkowski, Maciej. "„Rewaloryzacja” centrum miasta: tendencje lokalizacyjne przedsiębiorstw technologicznych w skali mikro na przykładzie Warszawy". Przegląd Geograficzny 94, no. 3 (2022): 351-371. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2022.3.4
Harvard: Smętkowski, M. 2022. "„Rewaloryzacja” centrum miasta: tendencje lokalizacyjne przedsiębiorstw technologicznych w skali mikro na przykładzie Warszawy". Przegląd Geograficzny, vol. 94, no. 3, pp. 351-371. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2022.3.4

Abstract

Since 2014, there has been a rapid development of the network of hiking trails in Poland’s Sowie Mountains, which forms an element of broader processes taking place in various parts of the Sudeten Mountains, especially the Central Sudeten. These changes have here been analysed, i.a. by using elements of graph analysis. So that a full picture might be obtained, changes in the degree of development and coherence of the hiking-trail network in the whole period since World War II were determined, with the reasons for marking new routes examined, account being taken of both attractiveness of the area to tourists and the roles sections in the network play. Moreover, the ways of routing new trails and changes in the courses of existing ones were analysed in relation to patterns indicated in the literature. In the face of the long period of analysis, it is notable that the period from the 1970s to the beginning of the 21st century brought hardly any development of the network of hiking trails in the Sowie Mountains (Fig. 2). This in essence comprised two long-distance routes leading along the entire range, together with local trails running perpendicular to these, connecting the ridge with the south-western and north-eastern forelands. Given the overall extensive nature of the Sowie Mountains, the lack of connecting sections between local trails made it impossible to plan a trip using official routes without the main ridge being reached, and hence considerable distances covered. This arrangement failed to correspond with the notion of recreational use being made of the area under study (mainly weekend walks), as a reflection of the proximity of several cities, Wałbrzych being the largest. Changes to that situation were only brought about in recent years (Fig. 2). The length of hiking trails in the Sowie Mountains in 2022, as compared with 1974 and 2005, almost doubled, with an approximately threefold increase in the number of nodes and inter-node sections (Table 1). The increase in network density is reflected in a decrease in the average length of inter-node sections – from 2.45 km in 1974 to 1.56 km in 2022, with a mid-period increase in 2005 to 2.48 km. As a result of these changes, network coherence decreased slightly (though it is still appropriate to apply the classification of lattice system characterised by quite good cohesion), even as there was a clear improvement in the possibility for trips, especially shorter trips, to be organised, with there no longer being any requirement for the highest parts of the range to be reached, and with circular routes made possible. The existing network of access routes from towns surrounding the Sowie Mountains was developed, but most of all, trails were laid down to traverse the slopes of the main and side ridges. The development of the network encompassed both: 1) areas that had been very popular hitherto, and 2) less-visited parts, altogether devoid of marked hiking trails as recently as in 2005. As previously, the network remains less-developed in the south-eastern part of the Sowie Mountains, with only two new routes added by 2022, as compared with in 2005. However, trails created recently often in fact correspond with routes in existence prior to World War II. There are many positive aspects to this development (or reconstruction) of the hiking-trail network in the Sowie Mountains. New routes relate clearly to sightseeing assets, many of which have only now been encompassed by the network. Moreover, the scenic values of selected parts of the range (the slopes of the main ridge, north-western part of the region) have gained further appreciation. Routes do make reference to the locations of public-transport stops (especially railway stations), as well as car parks located at the foot of the mountains or in passes. There is a clear tendency for the share of trails covered in an asphalt surface to be limited, with this applying to both new trails and course changes involving older ones (Table 2, Fig. 3, 4). The routes are equipped with information and leisure infrastructure, with new routes often marked to include these investments in the network. The example of the intensive development of the network of hiking trails in Poland’s Sowie Mountains serves to highlight how there remains further potential in this regard, in other selected parts of the Sudeten Mountains, with features valuable from the point of sightseeing that have still not been reached by the official network of hiking trails.

Keywords: szlaki piesze, zagospodarowanie turystyczne, sieci, grafy, Góry Sowie

Krzysztof Kołodziejczyk [krzysztof.kolodziejczyk@uwr.edu.pl], Uniwersytet Wrocławski, Instytut Geografii i Rozwoju Regionalnego

Citation

APA: Kołodziejczyk, K. (2022). Rozwój sieci szlaków pieszych w Górach Sowich po II wojnie światowej. Przegląd Geograficzny, 94(3), 373-396. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2022.3.5
MLA: Kołodziejczyk, Krzysztof. "Rozwój sieci szlaków pieszych w Górach Sowich po II wojnie światowej". Przegląd Geograficzny, vol. 94, no. 3, 2022, pp. 373-396. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2022.3.5
Chicago: Kołodziejczyk, Krzysztof. "Rozwój sieci szlaków pieszych w Górach Sowich po II wojnie światowej". Przegląd Geograficzny 94, no. 3 (2022): 373-396. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2022.3.5
Harvard: Kołodziejczyk, K. 2022. "Rozwój sieci szlaków pieszych w Górach Sowich po II wojnie światowej". Przegląd Geograficzny, vol. 94, no. 3, pp. 373-396. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2022.3.5

Tomasz Wites [t.wites@uw.edu.pl], Uniwersytet Warszawski, Wydział Geografii i Studiów Regionalnych

Citation

APA: Wites, T. (2022). Uroczystość odnowienia doktoratu prof. Antoniego Jackowskiego. Przegląd Geograficzny, 94(3), 399-404. https://doi.org/
MLA: Wites, Tomasz. "Uroczystość odnowienia doktoratu prof. Antoniego Jackowskiego". Przegląd Geograficzny, vol. 94, no. 3, 2022, pp. 399-404. https://doi.org/
Chicago: Wites, Tomasz. "Uroczystość odnowienia doktoratu prof. Antoniego Jackowskiego". Przegląd Geograficzny 94, no. 3 (2022): 399-404. https://doi.org/
Harvard: Wites, T. 2022. "Uroczystość odnowienia doktoratu prof. Antoniego Jackowskiego". Przegląd Geograficzny, vol. 94, no. 3, pp. 399-404. https://doi.org/