Przegląd Geograficzny (2025) tom 97, zeszyt 4

Abstract

Innovations in transportation and telecommunications, together with their spatial diffusion, have made travel, freight transport, and information transmission increasingly faster and cheaper. As a result, the friction of distance has diminished. Places have become closer in terms of time distance, even though their spatial separation have remained unchanged. This phenomenon is known as time‑space compression or time‑space convergence. In the 19th century, the development of railways and steam navigation greatly accelerated this process. Since the 20th century, motorisation and aviation have further contributed to it. However, the patterns of time‑space compression have not been identical everywhere. They have been shaped by the specific conditions present in each region. Time distances between urban centres have shrunk more rapidly than those between core areas and peripheral ones. These processes also affected Polish lands. Warsaw received its first railway in 1845, nearly twenty years after the world’s first public steam‑powered railway opened in Northeast England in 1825. This innovative mode of transport spread gradually from the capital to other urban centres within the Kingdom of Poland (then under Russian rule), as well as to locations connecting with the railway networks of neighbouring states. This article seeks to characterise the pattern of time‑space compression in transport terms across Polish lands over the past 200 years (1825‑2025). The study focuses on the following questions:

• What was the scale, direction and rate of change in time distances in selected sub‑periods, and which factors influenced these changes?
• How closely does the process observed for Polish lands compare with foreign patterns?
• To what extent does the reduction of time distances between 2004 and 2025 – driven by investments after Poland’s EU accession – differ from changes in earlier sub‑periods?

To achieve these objectives, travel times to Warsaw using two modes of passenger land transport – horse‑drawn postal coaches and trains – were analysed for connections from five selected voivodeship cities: Kraków, Toruń, Białystok, Łódź, and Lublin. Travel times by postal coach (1825‑1840/60) were estimated based on old road maps, postal route directories, and relevant literature. For rail transport (1860/80‑2025), archival timetables have been used, allowing for the reconstruction of routes and the exact duration of the fastest passenger services available in each selected year. Travel times are considered as absolute values (Figs. 1 and 2), average speeds (Fig. 3), and through the TSC index (Table 4), which expresses the average rate of time‑space compression in the sub‑periods (minutes per year). Changes in time distances are also presented on anamorphic maps (Fig. 4), prepared in Esri ArcGIS software with the assistance of the freely available IsoDistAngle application. The pattern of time‑space compression observed in Poland – examined here through five connections with Warsaw – differs from models presented in the literature, whether from a global perspective or in the case studies of individual countries. The differences stem first from the relatively late introduction of rail transport compared to Western Europe and North America, which prolonged the dominance of slower postal‑coach connections. Secondly, most studies present only one direction of the process (compression/convergence), without acknowledging phases of stagnation or reversal (decompression/divergence). In contrast, the railway network in Polish lands suffered war damage during both world wars and experienced deterioration during the period of political and economic transition. Increases in travel time observed for the years 1914‑1919, 1939‑1950, and partially 1990‑2004, represent a genuine regression in civilizational development. Significant portions of investment efforts were directed toward rebuilding infrastructure and rolling stock, as well as addressing long‑delayed maintenance needs – improvements whose effects were often not immediate. The calculated rate of time‑space compression (Table 4) shows that over the entire period 1825‑2025, Kraków has moved closest to Warsaw, with an average of approximately 18.5 minutes per year. This is primarily a result of cumulative investments along this corridor. However, the average rate between 2004 and 2025 – despite significant expenditures on railway modernization – is several times lower than in the interwar period and dozens of times lower than in the first half of the 19th century. The factors contributing to time‑space compression in the individual sub‑periods, as identified in this study, can be grouped into three categories.

The first group consists of technical factors, including infrastructural ones:

• expansion of the paved road network and straightening of existing postal routes;
• design improvements in postal coaches that enabled the production of lighter and faster vehicles;
• connecting more and more settlements to the railway network;
• supplementing the rail network with new sections that shortened physical distances;
• upgrading existing railway infrastructure;
• introducing rolling stock designed for higher speeds.

The second group is composed of organisational factors:

• optimisation of procedures at post stations, reducing dispatching and horse‑changing times;
• establishing interchanges between postal coaches and trains in the early phase of railway development;
• optimising train timetables by reducing the number and duration of scheduled stops;
• adapting train routes to make use of railway sections with the highest technical standards.

The third group includes economic and geopolitical factors:

• involvement of private entrepreneurs in developing postal connections and building railways in the former Kingdom of Poland;
• reduction of border and customs barriers following the post‑1918 consolidation of the territory of independent Poland;
• the state’s pro‑investment transport policies in the interwar period and after World War II;
• a post‑EU accession policy focused on strengthening transport linkages between metropolitan areas.

Keywords: time-space compression, time-space convergence, temporal accessibility, passenger transport, anamorphic maps, Polish lands

Karol Kowalczyk [karol.kowalczyk@mail.umcs.pl], Uniwersytet Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej, Instytut Geografii Społeczno-Ekonomicznej i Gospodarki Przestrzennej

Citation

APA: Kowalczyk, K. (2025). Kompresja czasu i przestrzeni na ziemiach polskich w latach 1825–2025 na przykładzie pocztowych i kolejowych połączeń pasażerskich wybranych miast z Warszawą. Przegląd Geograficzny, 97(4), 375-404. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2025.4.2
MLA: Kowalczyk, Karol. "Kompresja czasu i przestrzeni na ziemiach polskich w latach 1825–2025 na przykładzie pocztowych i kolejowych połączeń pasażerskich wybranych miast z Warszawą". Przegląd Geograficzny, vol. 97, no. 4, 2025, pp. 375-404. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2025.4.2
Chicago: Kowalczyk, Karol. "Kompresja czasu i przestrzeni na ziemiach polskich w latach 1825–2025 na przykładzie pocztowych i kolejowych połączeń pasażerskich wybranych miast z Warszawą". Przegląd Geograficzny 97, no. 4 (2025): 375-404. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2025.4.2
Harvard: Kowalczyk, K. 2025. "Kompresja czasu i przestrzeni na ziemiach polskich w latach 1825–2025 na przykładzie pocztowych i kolejowych połączeń pasażerskich wybranych miast z Warszawą". Przegląd Geograficzny, vol. 97, no. 4, pp. 375-404. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2025.4.2

Abstract

This paper compares Poland’s emerging offshore wind market, with the United Kingdom, the European leader in the sector, to explore how economic benefits from offshore wind are distributed spatially. The Spatial Economic Benefit Analysis (SEBA) method was applied and refined by integrating an economic dimension, enabling the estimation of contract values and their geographical allocation. The study covers 18 projects, linking supply chain actors with contract packages to assess spatial concentration. Results show that supply chains tend to cluster: in the UK, a mature industrial belt has developed around the southern North Sea, spanning the British, Belgian, Dutch, and Danish coasts, serving both British and international markets. In Poland, Tier 1 contracts are largely secured by foreign firms, though domestic actors are visible in coastal and metropolitan clusters. With further Baltic development, Poland could become a regional supply hub if policy support improves.

Keywords: offshore wind, local content, spatial distribution, supply chain, coastal regions, SEBA

Tomasz Laskowicz [tomasz.laskowicz@ug.edu.pl], University of Gdańsk, Faculty of Economics

Citation

APA: Laskowicz, T. (2025). Spatial distribution of economic benefits from offshore wind development: case studies of Poland and the United Kingdom. Przegląd Geograficzny, 97(4), 405-425. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2025.4.3
MLA: Laskowicz, Tomasz. "Spatial distribution of economic benefits from offshore wind development: case studies of Poland and the United Kingdom". Przegląd Geograficzny, vol. 97, no. 4, 2025, pp. 405-425. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2025.4.3
Chicago: Laskowicz, Tomasz. "Spatial distribution of economic benefits from offshore wind development: case studies of Poland and the United Kingdom". Przegląd Geograficzny 97, no. 4 (2025): 405-425. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2025.4.3
Harvard: Laskowicz, T. 2025. "Spatial distribution of economic benefits from offshore wind development: case studies of Poland and the United Kingdom". Przegląd Geograficzny, vol. 97, no. 4, pp. 405-425. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2025.4.3

Abstract

The Różany Strumień catchment, located in the northern part of Poznań, is one of the research areas of the Integrated Monitoring of the Natural Environment (IMNE) programme and serves as a field laboratory of the Poznań-Morasko station. This is the first IMNE base station in Poland located within a large urban agglomeration and subjected to strong anthropogenic pressures. The 2023 hydrological year marked the eighth year of continuous monitoring in this urban catchment, with investigations carried out in accordance with twelve IMNE measurement programmes. The present paper discusses selected results that together enable an assessment of the functioning of the catchment geoecosystem under the hydrometeorological conditions of 2023.

Meteorological observations showed that the hydrological year 2023 was classified as a warm year. The mean annual air temperature reached 10.4°C, comparable to the recent warm years of 2018-2020 and 2022, and clearly higher than the 1991-2020 long-term average. Only April was classified as a cool month, whereas five months were warm or very warm, including an exceptionally warm September. The annual precipitation total reached 628.4 mm, which was 17% above the long-term average. However, precipitation was extremely unevenly distributed throughout the year. Very wet months (August and October) alternated with extremely dry ones, most notably September with only 5.3 mm of rainfall. Snow cover was insignificant, occurring on a single day in December, and had no impact on catchment retention. The length of the thermal growing season (244 days) matched the multiannual mean, although the lack of thermal winter is a signal of the ongoing climatic shift.

Precipitation chemistry measurements revealed low mineralization and normal pH values, although conductivity remained slightly elevated compared to the long-term reference. Among the anions, nitrates, sulphates and chlorides dominated, whereas ammonium and calcium were the most abundant cations. Compared with previous years, the concentrations of nitrates and sulphates declined, with the nitrate-to-sulphate ratio exceeding unity for the first time, indicating a growing role of traffic-related emissions in precipitation acidity in western Poland. The role of forest canopies in modifying precipitation was also confirmed. Throughfall accounted for about 65% of bulk precipitation, and despite lower volumes, ion loads were nearly four times higher than those of open-field precipitation. This was particularly evident for potassium, magnesium and calcium, which are largely leached from assimilation organs or washed from dust deposits on the canopy surface. Contrary to common expectations that coniferous stands intensify precipitation acidity, the studied Scots pine stand contributed to neutralization instead due to elevated loads of alkaline ions.

Hydrological observations of the Różany Strumień indicated very low water stages and discharges, continuing the unfavorable situation observed since the summer of 2018. Water levels mostly ranged between 14 and 35 cm above the gauge zero, with higher values recorded only in December and August. Discharge fluctuated from zero to 0.0628 m³ ∙ s⁻¹, with an annual mean of 0.0043 m³ ∙ s⁻¹. This was lower than in the dry years 2019-2022 and more than 50% lower than the mean for 2015-2018. A record-high flow variability was noted, and zero-flow conditions occurred for 62 days, mostly in summer and early autumn. These extreme low flows were only occasionally interrupted by short-lived flood waves induced by intense rainfall.

The chemical composition of stream water was characterized by slightly alkaline pH (7.83) and high mineralization, with a mean specific electrical conductivity of 91.5 mS ∙ m⁻¹. The waters belonged to the Ca-HCO₃-Cl hydrogeochemical type. Ion load calculations confirmed bicarbonates, chlorides and sulphates as the dominant anions, and calcium, sodium and magnesium as the main cations. According to national regulations, six of the twelve evaluated indicators corresponded to class I water quality, while four (including conductivity, bicarbonates, calcium and chlorides) were classified below class III. As a result, the overall ecological status of the stream was assessed as below good.

Groundwater levels in two observation wells reflected the pattern of atmospheric supply. After a favorable winter and very wet August, water tables increased, although generally remained at low levels comparable to those observed during the last four years. Both piezometers recorded the lowest minimum groundwater levels since 2016, a legacy of the extremely dry years 2018-2019 and intensified evapotranspiration driven by rising air temperatures. Hydrochemical analyses indicated Ca-HCO₃-Cl waters with mineralization above 500 mg ∙ dm⁻³. Most parameters corresponded to class I groundwater quality, with conductivity, sulphates and chlorides classified as class II, and calcium as class III. Accordingly, the overall chemical status of groundwater was assessed as good, in contrast to the surface waters of the catchment.

The annual water balance revealed a strong dominance of atmospheric input over river discharge (610.8 mm), highlighting the considerable retention capacity of the urban geoecosystem. The dissolved matter balance was negative (-32.6 kg ∙ ha⁻¹), with significant losses of calcium and chlorides, while the nutrient balance was positive (+16.0 kg ∙ ha⁻¹), dominated by nitrates and ammonium. These findings confirm the predominance of leaching processes over accumulation within the catchment and emphasize the role of both natural conditions and anthropogenic impacts in shaping material fluxes. In conclusion, the functioning of the Różany Strumień catchment in 2023 was strongly controlled by variable hydrometeorological conditions and by the increasing anthropogenic pressure typical of urban areas. The study demonstrates the usefulness of integrated monitoring for identifying short-term responses and long-term trends in small urbanized catchments. Continued observations will provide the basis for detecting cause-effect relationships, recognizing environmental risks, and supporting sustainable management strategies under conditions of ongoing climate change and urban expansion.

Keywords: Różany Strumień catchment, IMNE, anthropogenic pressure, water balance, precipitation chemistry, surface waters, groundwater

Maciej Major [maciej.major@amu.edu.pl], Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu, Stacja Zintegrowanego Monitoringu Środowiska Przyrodniczego Poznań-Morasko; Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu, Instytut Geoekologii i Geoinformacji
Maria Chudzińska [maria.chudzinska@amu.edu.pl], Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu, Stacja Zintegrowanego Monitoringu Środowiska Przyrodniczego Poznań-Morasko
Robert Kruszyk [robert.kruszyk@amu.edu.pl], Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu, Instytut Geoekologii i Geoinformacji
Mikołaj Majewski [mikolaj.majewski@amu.edu.pl], Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu, Wydział Nauk Geograficznych i Geologicznych
Małgorzata Stefaniak [m.stefaniak@amu.edu.pl], Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu, Stacja Zintegrowanego Monitoringu Środowiska Przyrodniczego Poznań-Morasko

Citation

APA: Major, M., Chudzińska, M., Kruszyk, R., Majewski, M., & Stefaniak, M. (2025). Funkcjonowanie geoekosystemu zlewni miejskiej Różanego Strumienia w Poznaniu pod wpływem presji antropogenicznej. Przegląd Geograficzny, 97(4), 427-445. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2025.4.4
MLA: Major, Maciej, et al. "Funkcjonowanie geoekosystemu zlewni miejskiej Różanego Strumienia w Poznaniu pod wpływem presji antropogenicznej". Przegląd Geograficzny, vol. 97, no. 4, 2025, pp. 427-445. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2025.4.4
Chicago: Major, Maciej, Chudzińska, Maria, Kruszyk, Robert, Majewski, Mikołaj, and Stefaniak, Małgorzata. "Funkcjonowanie geoekosystemu zlewni miejskiej Różanego Strumienia w Poznaniu pod wpływem presji antropogenicznej". Przegląd Geograficzny 97, no. 4 (2025): 427-445. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2025.4.4
Harvard: Major, M., Chudzińska, M., Kruszyk, R., Majewski, M., & Stefaniak, M. 2025. "Funkcjonowanie geoekosystemu zlewni miejskiej Różanego Strumienia w Poznaniu pod wpływem presji antropogenicznej". Przegląd Geograficzny, vol. 97, no. 4, pp. 427-445. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2025.4.4

Abstract

The analysis of the state of geography in Poland between 2014 and 2019, supplemented by previous research, highlights the increasing disciplinary distinctiveness of geography within the Polish scientific system. Despite the ongoing transformations in the organisation and management of science, the development of geography continues to be shaped both by internal scientific trends and by external socio‑political factors.

After World War II, geography in Poland maintained a multidisciplinary profile, integrating physical and socio‑economic geography under a common organisational structure. However, post‑1990 reforms gradually introduced a dual‑area model of development, and recent years (after 2018) have seen increasing tendencies toward organisational separation between physical and socio‑economic geography. This process of disintegration, observed across many disciplines, has also affected geography, raising concerns about the need for reintegration around regional geography as a synthesis, grounded in solid methodological and subject‑matter foundations.

The diagnosis was based on a survey conducted among 15 geographical centers, of which 10 centers submitting complete responses. These data are considered representative for evaluating the state of geography in Poland. The survey covered aspects such as organizational structure, research directions, publishing activity, staff composition, and participation in research projects and scientific organisations.

The organizational structure of geographical units has undergone substantial changes compared to the previous period (2009‑2013). As of 2019, among the 10 centers, there were 6 independent faculties, 9 institutes, 31 departments, 49 divisions, 50 laboratories, and 15 field stations. A notable feature is the marked decline in the number of field stations, which may negatively impact field‑based research and education, essential components of geographical studies.

Employment trends between 2014 and 2019 show a modest overall increase in the number of scientific staff. However, a detailed analysis reveals important shifts: while the number of full professors rose modestly, a more dynamic growth was observed in the number of habilitated doctors, whereas the number of doctoral degree holders slightly decreased. The distribution of staff remains uneven among centers, with the Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań employing the highest number of researchers. This highlights the importance of promoting greater staff mobility and creating opportunities for the employment of young academics across different centers.

Research directions across centers show considerable thematic diversity, both in physical and socio‑economic geography. Physical geography research continues to focus on contemporary geomorphological processes, palaeogeography, climatology, bioclimatology, and palaeoecology. Socio‑economic geography, meanwhile, addresses regional transformations, rural change, and spatial organization processes. However, the absence of clearly identified research priorities constitutes a notable weakness, pointing to the need for developing more synthetic and interdisciplinary studies.

The dissemination of research results remains an important aspect of academic activity. The number of journals published by geographical centers has decreased slightly, a trend seen as positive, since an excessive number of journals often leads to a dilution of quality. Concentrating efforts on fewer, higher‑impact journals would enhance the international visibility of Polish geography.

Scientific productivity, measured in the number of publications, varied significantly across centers. Poznań and Kraków (Jagiellonian University) achieved the highest outputs. A detailed analysis of the publication structure shows some centers focusing predominantly on physical geography, while others leaned towards socio‑economic topics. This differentiation often reflects the internal staffing structure of the centers.

Participation in national and international research programs is another indicator of scientific activity. Between 2014 and 2019, 74% of projects were nationally funded, although the share of international projects has increased compared to earlier periods. Centers such as the Institute of Geography and Spatial Organization of the Polish Academy of Sciences and the Jagiellonian University exhibited particularly strong research engagement, with the latter excelling in international project participation.

The presence of Polish geographers in governing bodies of scientific organizations also remains strong, particularly among researchers from Poznań and Wrocław. Nevertheless, compared to earlier periods, no significant increase in such involvement was recorded.

The analysis concludes with several recommendations: there is a pressing need to clearly define the disciplinary identity of geography within the broader system of Earth sciences, natural sciences, and social sciences. This requires promoting methodological development, enhancing the use of GIS methods, increasing student fieldwork opportunities, supporting student scientific associations, and strengthening links with European research networks.

Despite many challenges, Polish geography continues to demonstrate significant research potential. The dynamic development of GIS‑based methodologies, the growing number of publications in international journals, and successful participation in national and international research programs affirm the discipline’s evolving role in the modern scientific landscape. However, continued efforts are required to reintegrate the field, to foster higher standards in doctoral research, and to strengthen the overall academic standing of geography within both national and global contexts.

Keywords: geography in Poland, science system, geographical centers, staff structure, research directions

Andrzej Kostrzewski [andrzej.kostrzewski@amu.edu.pl], Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu, Wydział Nauk Geograficznych i Geologicznych
Marek Degórski [m.degor@twarda.pan.pl], Instytut Geografii i Przestrzennego Zagospodarowania im. S. Leszczyckiego PAN
Maciej Jędrusik [m.jedrusik@uw.edu.pl], Uniwersytet Warszawski, Wydział Geografii i Studiów Regionalnych
Kazimierz Krzemień [kazimierz.krzemien@uj.edu.pl], Uniwersytet Jagielloński, Wydział Geografii i Geologii
Andrzej Lisowski [alisowski@uw.edu.pl], Uniwersytet Warszawski, Wydział Geografii i Studiów Regionalnych
Mikołaj Majewski [mikolaj.majewski@amu.edu.pl], Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu, Wydział Nauk Geograficznych i Geologicznych

Citation

APA: Kostrzewski, A., Degórski, M., Jędrusik, M., Krzemień, K., Lisowski, A., & Majewski, M. (2025). Diagnoza stanu geografii w Polsce w drugiej dekadzie XXI w.. Przegląd Geograficzny, 97(4), 447-462. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2025.4.5
MLA: Kostrzewski, Andrzej, et al. "Diagnoza stanu geografii w Polsce w drugiej dekadzie XXI w.". Przegląd Geograficzny, vol. 97, no. 4, 2025, pp. 447-462. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2025.4.5
Chicago: Kostrzewski, Andrzej, Degórski, Marek, Jędrusik, Maciej, Krzemień, Kazimierz, Lisowski, Andrzej, and Majewski, Mikołaj. "Diagnoza stanu geografii w Polsce w drugiej dekadzie XXI w.". Przegląd Geograficzny 97, no. 4 (2025): 447-462. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2025.4.5
Harvard: Kostrzewski, A., Degórski, M., Jędrusik, M., Krzemień, K., Lisowski, A., & Majewski, M. 2025. "Diagnoza stanu geografii w Polsce w drugiej dekadzie XXI w.". Przegląd Geograficzny, vol. 97, no. 4, pp. 447-462. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2025.4.5