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Abstract

This article addresses the issue of implementing low emission zones (LEZs) in Poland against the backdrop of European experiences. Its aim is to diagnose the state of implementation, discuss the evolution of legal frameworks, and synthesize domestic contributions in comparison with international research. The analysis is based on a narrative review of literature and normative documents, with the selection limited to works concerning Polish conditions after 2018. Within the European Union context, LEZs remain a relatively new instrument in Poland, and evidence gaps primarily concern the assessment of the effects of restrictions, changes in air quality, and transport behaviors. The analysis of legal frameworks shows that the 2018 Act has been amended multiple times; the key amendment of 2024 linked the obligation to establish LEZs to exceedances of permissible nitrogen dioxide levels in cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants, while maintaining the possibility for municipalities to introduce zones voluntarily. Currently, one LEZ operates in Warsaw (since July 2024), while other large cities are at various stages of the process, from preparation and consultations to legal disputes and temporary suspension of work. The literature review indicates that domestic publications focus on legal conditions and the rationale for intervention, whereas foreign studies more broadly analyze health impacts, environmental effectiveness, emission relocation phenomena, cost-benefit distribution, and social acceptance. Key research gaps have been identified: the need for ex ante and ex post procedures, data triangulation (air quality, traffic intensity, mobility), distributional analyses, and studies on risk communication and acceptance mechanisms. Practical implications include prioritizing monitoring, phasing restrictions, adapting access criteria to local contexts, and linking LEZs with parking policies, public transport development, and active mobility.

Keywords: low emission zones (LEZs), air quality, urban mobility, transport policy, legal frameworks, Poland

Tadeusz Pupar [tadeusz.pupar@geo.uni.lodz.pl], University of Lodz, Doctoral School of Social Sciences, Institute of the Built Environment and Spatial Policy

Citation

APA: Pupar, T. (2026). Low emission zones in Poland: a synthetic review of evidence, regulatory frameworks, and implementation experiences. Przegląd Geograficzny, 98(2), 153-178. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2026.2.2
MLA: Pupar, Tadeusz. "Low emission zones in Poland: a synthetic review of evidence, regulatory frameworks, and implementation experiences". Przegląd Geograficzny, vol. 98, no. 2, 2026, pp. 153-178. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2026.2.2
Chicago: Pupar, Tadeusz. "Low emission zones in Poland: a synthetic review of evidence, regulatory frameworks, and implementation experiences". Przegląd Geograficzny 98, no. 2 (2026): 153-178. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2026.2.2
Harvard: Pupar, T. 2026. "Low emission zones in Poland: a synthetic review of evidence, regulatory frameworks, and implementation experiences". Przegląd Geograficzny, vol. 98, no. 2, pp. 153-178. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2026.2.2

Abstract

This study addresses a significant gap in research on housing in Poland. Previous analyses have typically focused on selected aspects of housing, such as living conditions, demographic change, or spatial variation in housing quality. However, comprehensive, data-driven approaches integrating demographic pressure, the dynamics and structure of new housing supply, and the characteristics of the existing housing stock remain scarce.

The main objective of this study is to propose a typology of municipalities in Poland based on a multidimensional analysis of housing-related data. An exploratory approach was adopted, using a clustering method based on the Gaussian Mixture Models (GMM) algorithm. Importantly, the model was not constrained to produce predefined clusters; instead, theoretically expected types and subtypes, such as a metropolitan urban subtype, other urban subtypes, and a ʻrecreationalʼ type characterized by a high share of seasonal housing, were treated as working hypotheses subject to empirical verification.

As a result, five main types of housing systems were identified: urban, suburban, intermediate, peripheral, and special types. These differ in terms of demographic dynamics, the structure of investors, the intensity of housing production, and the condition of the housing stock. Each type was further divided into subtypes reflecting distinct trajectories of housing development and reproduction, yielding a total of fifteen subtypes. To illustrate differences between types, a typogram method was used, based on percentile distributions of key variables.

The distribution of municipalities and housing stock across types reveals substantial structural disparities. Out of 2,477 municipalities, only five (0.2%) were classified as metropolitan urban units, yet they accounted for as much as 14.5% of the national housing stock in 2024. More broadly, urban type comprised 8.0% of municipalities but concentrated 50.9% of housing resources. In contrast, suburban areas included 27.2% of municipalities but only 18.4% of the housing stock. A particularly notable imbalance is observed in dispersed suburban areas, which account for 11.9% of municipalities but just 5.6% of housing stock. Peripheral areas exhibit the opposite pattern: they encompass 48.5% of municipalities but contain only 15.6% of the national housing stock. This highlights the fragmented and relatively underdeveloped nature of housing stock in these regions. Exceptions to this pattern include compact suburban zones, typically surrounding large cities, and recreational type, both of which have a slightly higher share of housing stock relative to their share of municipalities.

The spatial distribution of the identified types reveals clear regional patterns. Urban and suburban types are relatively evenly distributed across the country, reflecting the nationwide presence of cities and their surrounding zones. In contrast, peripheral types display a strong east-west differentiation. In eastern and central Poland, peripheral areas are predominantly characterized by deprivation, reflected in insufficient housing infrastructure and lower-quality stock. In western and northern regions, peripheral areas are more often defined by obsolescence, with a higher share of aging housing stock.

The recreational type is concentrated in areas traditionally associated with seasonal tourism, including coastal zones, lake districts, and mountainous regions. It is also present in the vicinity of larger urban agglomerations, where it includes spa towns and municipalities with a high share of newly built, well-equipped, and low-density housing. A separate public type is more dispersed but occurs most frequently in northern Poland.

At the level of subtypes, further spatial differentiation becomes evident. Metropolitan urban municipalities are limited to five major cities with highly dynamic, market-driven housing systems. Other urban subtypes include stable and stagnating cities and towns, often surrounded by distinct suburban zones, compact in larger agglomerations, and more dispersed in smaller ones. Peripheral subtypes include both deprivation-related and obsolescence-related forms, with specific spatial concentrations, such as deficit-type deprivation in southeastern Poland and along the northern boundary of its occurrence, and deep housing obsolescence in the Sudetes. Intermediate subtypes show patterns broadly similar to peripheral ones, with stagnation dominating in central and eastern regions and obsolescence in the west and north.

The findings have both practical and scientific relevance. From a practical standpoint, they may contribute to analyses concerning spatial planning and the identification of housing policy needs across territorial administrative units. From a research standpoint, the study demonstrates the value of integrating demographic, supply-side, and stock-related variables in the analysis of housing. It also shows that housing processes can be effectively understood through the relationships between population dynamics, housing production, and existing stock, rather than solely through market conditions or spatial morphology.

At the same time, the study has limitations. The analysis was conducted at the municipal level, while migration data were only available at the county level, limiting the ability to capture fine-grained spatial variation in demographic processes. Future research could focus on refining the typology, particularly within heterogeneous categories such as stable and stagnating urban types, which include municipalities with diverse functional roles and positions within the national settlement system.

Keywords: housing, typology of municipalities, Gaussian Mixture Models, demographic demand, housing production, housing stock.

Hubert Horynek [hubert.horynek@pw.edu.pl], Politechnika Warszawska, Wydział Geodezji i Kartografii

Citation

APA: Horynek, H. (2026). Typologia mieszkalnictwa w gminach Polski z wykorzystaniem algorytmu Gaussian Mixture Models. Przegląd Geograficzny, 98(2), 179-204. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2026.2.3
MLA: Horynek, Hubert. "Typologia mieszkalnictwa w gminach Polski z wykorzystaniem algorytmu Gaussian Mixture Models". Przegląd Geograficzny, vol. 98, no. 2, 2026, pp. 179-204. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2026.2.3
Chicago: Horynek, Hubert. "Typologia mieszkalnictwa w gminach Polski z wykorzystaniem algorytmu Gaussian Mixture Models". Przegląd Geograficzny 98, no. 2 (2026): 179-204. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2026.2.3
Harvard: Horynek, H. 2026. "Typologia mieszkalnictwa w gminach Polski z wykorzystaniem algorytmu Gaussian Mixture Models". Przegląd Geograficzny, vol. 98, no. 2, pp. 179-204. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2026.2.3

Abstract

Lake tourism includes activities both within the lake itself and in its immediate surroundings. These activities may lead to a range of changes in lake ecosystems, including an increased input of pollutants. Among the most important and still widely studied pollutants are heavy metals (HMs), whose concentrations and potential toxicity were investigated in the waters and bottom sediments of two lakes of different origin near Gorzów Wielkopolski: the natural Kłodawskie Lake and the gravel pit lake Karnin Reservoir. HM concentrations were determined using inductively coupled plasma triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (ICP-QQQ-MS). The results obtained for HMs in water were analyzed in terms of potential toxic effects on humans, whereas HMs in bottom sediments were assessed in terms of their potential toxicity to aquatic biota. The results indicate comparable HM concentrations in the waters of both lakes and show no potential non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic health risk for humans, both in terms of chronic dermal exposure and quantitative assessment. In contrast, HM concentrations in bottom sediments differed significantly between the lakes, with notably higher values recorded in Kłodawskie Lake. The assessment of individual HMs using the modified hazard quotient (mHQ) indicated very low toxicity for Pb and Zn, and to a lesser extent for Cd, Cu, and Ni. Integrated indices indicated no potential combined toxicity of HMs. The presented study provides a basis for conducting similar analyses in lakes used for recreational purposes and highlights the potential of gravel pit lakes for tourism, particularly in regions characterized by a low number of natural lakes.

Keywords: gravel pit lake, cancer health risk, limnotourism, toxicity indices, suburban lakes.

Igor Śniady [igosni@st.amu.edu.pl], Adam Mickiewicz University, Faculty of Geographical and Geological Sciences
Emilia Smardz [emisma@st.amu.edu.pl], Adam Mickiewicz University, Faculty of Geographical and Geological Sciences
Anna Salwowska [annsal3@st.amu.edu.pl], Adam Mickiewicz University, Faculty of Geographical and Geological Sciences
Marcin Siepak [marcin.siepak@amu.edu.pl], Adam Mickiewicz University, Faculty of Geographical and Geological Sciences

Citation

APA: Śniady, I., Smardz, E., Salwowska, A., & Siepak, M. (2026). Heavy metals toxicity assessment in water and bottom sediments of two tourist lakes of different origin near Gorzów Wielkopolski (western Poland). Przegląd Geograficzny, 98(2), 205-225. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2026.2.4
MLA: Śniady, Igor, et al. "Heavy metals toxicity assessment in water and bottom sediments of two tourist lakes of different origin near Gorzów Wielkopolski (western Poland)". Przegląd Geograficzny, vol. 98, no. 2, 2026, pp. 205-225. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2026.2.4
Chicago: Śniady, Igor, Smardz, Emilia, Salwowska, Anna, and Siepak, Marcin. "Heavy metals toxicity assessment in water and bottom sediments of two tourist lakes of different origin near Gorzów Wielkopolski (western Poland)". Przegląd Geograficzny 98, no. 2 (2026): 205-225. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2026.2.4
Harvard: Śniady, I., Smardz, E., Salwowska, A., & Siepak, M. 2026. "Heavy metals toxicity assessment in water and bottom sediments of two tourist lakes of different origin near Gorzów Wielkopolski (western Poland)". Przegląd Geograficzny, vol. 98, no. 2, pp. 205-225. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2026.2.4

Abstract

The aim of the article is to analyse the changes that have taken place in the spatial layouts of villages located in the vicinity of the Czorsztyn Reservoir from the 19th century to the present day. Rural settlements located in the following communes were selected for the study: Czorsztyn, Krościenko nad Dunajcem, Łapsze Niżne and Nowy Targ (Małopolskie Province, Poland). The text presents and characterises the rural layouts of the localities under study. Initially, the following spatial layouts were created in the vicinity of the Czorsztyn Reservoir: double row forest villages, small circular villages, oval villages and multi-road villages. They survived almost unchanged until the beginning of the 20th century. After the construction of the reservoir, a lot of villages changed their former layout. The transformation of historical forms of planning and their subsequent changes were the result of many factors, e.g. the development of tourism and the local population’s departure from agriculture, which influenced the expansion of built-up areas and the creation of a new road network. The most significant transformations of the rural layouts took place in the villages located in the immediate vicinity of the Czorsztyn Reservoir. The text discusses research issues on the basis of selected villages. The villages were selected to represent as accurately as possible each spatial layout that has emerged and the fundamental changes that have taken place within it. The following methods were used in the study: the monographic method, the genetic method, the genetic-metrological method, the retrograde record method, the method of analysing aerial photographs and orthophotomaps, and the cartographic method. The considerations were based on cartographic materials obtained from the National Archives in Krakow and the Military Geographical Institute.

Keywords: village, settlement, spatial layout (spatial pattern), historical geography, Czorsztyn Reservoir

Monika Cepil [monika.cepil@ujk.edu.pl], Jan Kochanowski University of Kielce, Institute of Geography and Environmental Sciences

Citation

APA: Cepil, M. (2026). Changes in the spatial layouts of the villages around the Czorsztyn Reservoir. Przegląd Geograficzny, 98(2), 227-249. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2026.2.5
MLA: Cepil, Monika. "Changes in the spatial layouts of the villages around the Czorsztyn Reservoir". Przegląd Geograficzny, vol. 98, no. 2, 2026, pp. 227-249. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2026.2.5
Chicago: Cepil, Monika. "Changes in the spatial layouts of the villages around the Czorsztyn Reservoir". Przegląd Geograficzny 98, no. 2 (2026): 227-249. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2026.2.5
Harvard: Cepil, M. 2026. "Changes in the spatial layouts of the villages around the Czorsztyn Reservoir". Przegląd Geograficzny, vol. 98, no. 2, pp. 227-249. https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2026.2.5

Abstract

W dniach 12‑13 maja 2026 r. w siedzibie Instytutu Geografii i Przestrzennego Zagospodarowania PAN (IGiPZ PAN) w Warszawie oraz w formie zdalnej odbyła się konferencja „Interdyscyplinarne badania krajobrazów”. Wydarzenie zostało zorganizowane przez Komitet Nauk Geograficznych PAN (KNG PAN) we współpracy z Polską Asocjacją Ekologii Krajobrazu, Komisją Krajobrazu Kulturowego PTG oraz IGiPZ PAN. W spotkaniu wzięło udział 131 osób reprezentujących 31 ośrodków naukowych, z czego 61 osób uczestniczyło stacjonarnie.

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Sebastian Bernat, Uniwersytet Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej
Jarosław Balon, Uniwersytet Jagielloński
Zbigniew Zwoliński, Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu
Przemysław Śleszyński [psleszyn@twarda.pan.pl], Instytut Geografii i Przestrzennego Zagospodarowania im. S. Leszczyckiego PAN

Citation

APA: Bernat, S., Balon, J., Zwoliński, Z., & Śleszyński, P. (2026). Sprawozdanie z konferencji „Interdyscyplinarne badania krajobrazów” (Warszawa, 12‑13 maja 2026 r.). Przegląd Geograficzny, 98(2), 251-255. https://doi.org/
MLA: Bernat, Sebastian, et al. "Sprawozdanie z konferencji „Interdyscyplinarne badania krajobrazów” (Warszawa, 12‑13 maja 2026 r.)". Przegląd Geograficzny, vol. 98, no. 2, 2026, pp. 251-255. https://doi.org/
Chicago: Bernat, Sebastian, Balon, Jarosław, Zwoliński, Zbigniew, and Śleszyński, Przemysław. "Sprawozdanie z konferencji „Interdyscyplinarne badania krajobrazów” (Warszawa, 12‑13 maja 2026 r.)". Przegląd Geograficzny 98, no. 2 (2026): 251-255. https://doi.org/
Harvard: Bernat, S., Balon, J., Zwoliński, Z., & Śleszyński, P. 2026. "Sprawozdanie z konferencji „Interdyscyplinarne badania krajobrazów” (Warszawa, 12‑13 maja 2026 r.)". Przegląd Geograficzny, vol. 98, no. 2, pp. 251-255. https://doi.org/